Chain mail

Timeline

1. c. -400–800Mediterranean world · MediterraneanRing mail is recorded in use among Celtic, Roman, and Byzantine armies, and reached Western Europe through technical exchange with the Byzantine and Arab worlds; from the Carolingian era, European smiths gradually mastered linking techniques such as the four-in-one pattern.
2. 1081–1090Western Europe · FranceIn the 1080s, chain mail had become the standard torso protection of Western European knights, usually covering the torso and limbs and worn with an iron helmet and shield; ring mail in the Byzantine and Islamic worlds also maintained high standards of production in the same period, providing the equipment background for the coming Crusades.
3. c. 1100–1300Levant · LevantDuring the Crusades, ring-mail craftsmanship in Europe, Byzantium, and the Islamic world influenced one another; Damascus and elsewhere were renowned for fine mail, and Europe also saw complex forms such as mail chausses and mittens covering the whole body.
4. c. 1400–1600Europe · EuropeFrom the 15th century, plate armor gradually replaced chain mail as primary protection, though mail was still often worn as an under-layer beneath plate; after the spread of firearms, traditional ring mail eventually left the mainstream of battlefield equipment.