Inquisitorial trial system

Timeline

1. 1542–1559Rome · ItalyPope Paul III established the 'Supreme and Universal Congregation of the Roman and Universal Inquisition' in 1542 by the bull Licet ab initio, as a core institution of the Counter-Reformation, charged with examining heresy and controlling book publication, and promulgated the first Index of Forbidden Books in 1559.
2. 1560–1610Rome · ItalyAs the Council of Trent (1545–1563) established doctrinal standards, the Inquisition gradually codified its trial procedures: secret denunciation, isolated detention, systematic interrogation, participation of defense counsel, constraints on torture (limited to one session and required to be recorded), and multi-level appeal mechanisms were all fixed in practice; legal scholars such as Prospero Farinacci wrote to record and critique its procedures.
3. 1610–1640Various places in Italy · ItalyBetween 1610 and 1640 the Inquisition operated actively in various places, examining witches, heretics, and works violating the Index. In 1616 Galileo was ordered to cease supporting Copernican heliocentrism, with Cardinal Bellarmine issuing a warning decree; between 1621 and 1630 the Inquisition held frequent sessions in various places, and after Galileo published the Dialogue in 1632 he again faced investigation and was forced to recant in 1633. This period also saw philosophers such as Tommaso Campanella imprisoned for long terms.
4. 1700–1908Rome · ItalyAfter the Enlightenment, various countries successively abolished local inquisitions, and the power of the Roman headquarters contracted greatly. After Italian unification in 1870, the Roman Inquisition retained only internal ecclesiastical judicial functions. In 1908 Pius X reorganized it as the Holy Office, formally ending the historical phase of the inquisitorial trial system as an independent judicial body.