European Windmill

Timeline

1. 600–1000Persia and Central Asia · PersiaPersia developed windmills characterized by a vertical shaft and horizontal sails, used for grinding grain and lifting water; these later spread through the Islamic world to the eastern Mediterranean coast and Spain, becoming the indirect source of European windmill technology.
2. 1011–1020Western Europe and the Mediterranean · Western EuropeIn the early 11th century Europe still relied mainly on watermills, but the concept of windmills gradually arrived through indirect contact via Spain and Byzantium; this was the eve of large-scale application of vertical-axis windmills in Europe, with the transmission routes still awaiting further documentary and archaeological corroboration.
3. 1150–1400England, Flanders, and the Dutch lowlands · Low CountriesBetween the 12th and 14th centuries northwestern Europe developed windmills with vertical shafts and adjustable sails, widely used for grinding, sawing wood, and draining lowlands, greatly boosting agricultural productivity and shaping landscapes such as that of the Netherlands.