Wootz Steel

Timeline

1. 100–800Deccan, South India · South IndiaSouth Indian artisans smelted local iron ore with plant carbon in sealed clay crucibles to form high-carbon steel ingots, whose surfaces displayed water-patterned crystalline textures, later known as wootz steel or Indian steel.
2. 1295–1350Malabar Coast · Malabar CoastFrom the late 13th to early 14th century, wootz steel was exported through ports such as Malabar and Cochin to the Persian Gulf and Red Sea, then transshipped to Damascus in Syria to forge famous swords; Marco Polo, passing through around 1298, recorded the high-quality steel of southern India, a period overlapping the 1291–1300 range.
3. 1700–2000GlobalWith the rise of modern European metallurgy, traditional wootz steel production declined; since the 20th century, scholars have attempted to reconstruct the crucible smelting process through documentary research and experimental archaeology, revealing its modern materials-science significance, including carbon nanotube structures.