Ming Campaigns Against the Mongol Frontier

Timeline

1. 1410Khulun Khushin (in present-day Mongolia) · Mongolian SteppeIn the eighth year of Yongle (1410), Ming Chengzu (Zhu Di) led an army north and crushed the allied forces of Tatar leaders Bunyashiri and Arughtai at Khulun Khushin. This was the first large-scale action among the Yongle Emperor's five northern expeditions against Mongolia, dealing a heavy blow to Tatar power.
2. 1414Xinghe (around present-day Zhangbei, Hebei) · Ming-Mongol frontierArughtai again raided the Ming frontier, and the Yongle Emperor led an army beyond the frontier in pursuit in 1414. Though the Ming army did not destroy Arughtai, it forced him to flee far away, and the Ming promptly strengthened defenses along the Great Wall and built up guard units.
3. 1416–1420Along the Ming Great Wall · Ming Great WallAfter the northern expeditions, the Ming established several Mongol guard units north of the Great Wall, welcomed submitting tribes, and built frontier fortifications. By around 1420, the northern frontier had grown relatively stable, creating conditions for the Yongle Emperor's late-period domestic construction and the relocation of the capital to Beijing.