Spread of Arabic Numerals in Europe

Timeline

1. c. 1000–1100Iberian Peninsula · IberiaAt scholarly centers such as Córdoba and Toledo, Latin scholars encountered Indo-Arabic numerals and algorithms through Arabic translations, laying the groundwork for later spread to northern Europe.
2. 1202–1230Pisa · TuscanyLeonardo Fibonacci systematically introduced Indo-Arabic numerals and place-value algorithms in the Liber Abaci, promoting new methods of notation and calculation to the Italian merchant class.
3. c. 1260–1270Venice and Genoa · ItalyIn the mid-13th century, the use of Arabic numerals in commercial bookkeeping gradually increased in the account houses and customs records of port cities such as Venice and Genoa, though they still coexisted with Roman numerals.
4. c. 1400–1500University cities of Central Europe · EuropeWith the spread of printed arithmetic textbooks, Arabic numerals became dominant in European universities, observatories, and administrative documents, with place-value notation becoming the standard tool of modern scientific calculation.