Pepper and spice trade

Timeline

1. c. 1–200Alexandria—Rome · EgyptThe Roman Empire had strong demand for pepper; Pliny recorded large outflows of gold and silver in exchange for spices. Pepper was carried by Indian Ocean routes to Red Sea ports, then onward to Alexandria and Rome, at extremely high prices.
2. c. 200–400Persian Gulf—Ctesiphon · IraqAfter Roman direct maritime trade declined, Sasanian Persia controlled the Indian Ocean–Persian Gulf–overland transit chain; spices such as pepper could also reach China via Central Asian trade routes, forming a multi-path circulation pattern.
3. c. 300–500Guangzhou—Jiankang · ChinaSouthern Dynasties texts record foreign merchants bringing pepper, agarwood, and other spices by sea, with Guangzhou and Jiaozhou as import ports. Pepper, as a precious exotic, entered the diet and medical system of the scholar-officials, and the East Asian spice market took initial shape.