Star-Fort Bastion Design

Timeline

1. 1641–1648Rhineland–Netherlands border · RhinelandFrance, Spain and the Holy Roman Empire continuously reinforced bastion fortresses along the Rhineland and Netherlands borders, using projecting corners and ditch systems to resist indirect artillery fire; sieges accordingly shifted toward lengthy approaches via parallel trenches.
2. 1642–1650Portsmouth · HampshireParliamentarians and Royalists at key positions such as Portsmouth and Gloucester employed designs combining bastions and earthworks, supported by coastal guns and inner keeps, making traditional cavalry assaults ineffective and pushing fortress engineering in the British Isles toward continental models.