Nubian fortress architecture tradition

Timeline

1. c. 500–900Old Dongola · Northern StateChristian kingdoms such as Nobatia and Makuria built mud-brick castles and walls along the Nile bends, incorporating Byzantine-style corner tower layouts to defend against Beja nomadic tribes and desert raids.
2. c. 900–1200Faras · Northern StateThe Kingdom of Makuria expanded the Old Dongola fortress complex, with churches and castles side by side at Faras and elsewhere; walls featured bastions and arrow slits, reflecting an integrated pattern of religious center and military defense.
3. c. 1200Old Dongola archaeological site · SudanAfter Fatimid and Mamluk forces pressed south, the Nubian kingdoms gradually Islamized and declined, and the traditional fortresses were abandoned; since the 20th century, archaeological teams from Poland and other countries have excavated the Old Dongola castles and church murals.